Defense of thesis Gamal YOUNES (English)

## "Geoarchaeology and palaeoenvironments of the ancient Pharaonic port of Khufu, Giza, Egypt".
This thesis was carried out at CEREGE, within the Earth and Planets Team, under the supervision of Mr Christophe MORHANGE and Mr Nick MARRINER. The defence will take place on Tuesday 19 December 2023 at 2pm, in English, in the CEREGE amphitheatre (Bâtiment PASTEUR).

The thesis jury is composed of :

Mr Damase MOURALIS (Rapporteur and Chairman)
University Professor, University of Rouen Normandie
Mr Benoît DEVILLERS (Rapporteur)
University Professor, Université Paul Valéry-Montpellier 3
Mrs Suzanne LEROY (Examiner)
Honorary Professor at the University of Liverpool
Mr Moawad BADAWY (Examiner)
University Professor, Ain Shams University, Egypt
Mr Alain VERON (Guest)
Research Fellow, CEREGE, Aix Marseille University
Mr Christophe MORHANGE (Thesis supervisor)
University Professor, Aix Marseille University
Mr Nick MARRINER (Thesis co-supervisor)
Director of Research, CNRS, ThéMA, University of Franche-Comté.

Summary :

Geoarchaeology, which emerged in the 1970s, integrates geomorphological and archaeological techniques to understand human history and its interaction with the environment. One of the centres of interest is the ancient Pharaonic port of Khufu in Egypt, near the pyramids of Giza. This port, active during the Old Kingdom, played a significant role in trade and transport, shaping ancient Egyptian society, economy and culture. The surrounding environment, characterised by alluvial deposits, offers invaluable insights into paleogeography, paleoclimate and human activities.
The objectives of the study include reconstructing the topography of the ancient port of Khufu, examining palaeoenvironmental and palaeolandscape changes, investigating human impacts, assessing natural hazards, and understanding navigation and trade patterns. The study uses a variety of methodologies such as field techniques (including sediment core collection and geophysical surveys), laboratory techniques (sedimentological analyses, ostracod analyses, geochemical analyses), radiocarbon dating, statistical analyses, as well as data management and geomatics (using ArcGIS). The study aims to unravel the geomorphology and archaeology of ancient ports, to understand human-environment interactions at the time of the pyramid builders and to contribute to the conservation and management of cultural heritage.
   From five sediment cores at Giza, we have discerned floodplain deposits, aeolian sands and artificial embankments. These data shed light on the configuration of the ancient Nile and the landscape of the port of Khufu during the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC). Geophysical investigations have revealed the subsurface composition, suggesting possible archaeological sites linked to the port of Khufu. These discoveries, combined with existing models, made it possible to reconstruct the ancient Khufu branch of the Nile and its port. The ancient branch was around 450m wide and varied in depth from seven to 29m. The port itself measured around 440m by 370m, with two entrances divided by the river island, Nazlet El-Sisi.
The "Giza-3" core, located within the port of Khufu, has provided details of the port's past behaviour and regional climate changes. Analysis and dating of the sediments depicted the configuration of the port at the time of the construction of the Great Pyramid, leading to comparisons with previous research. In particular, sedimentary data from this core indicated the drought crisis of the Late Bronze Age around 1.2 ka BC, a climatic disturbance causing famines, economic recessions and political upheaval in ancient Egypt.
Geochemical analyses of the sediments in the port of Khufu revealed two key historical aspects. Firstly, there were discernible peaks in copper pollution, coinciding with major events such as the occupation of Maadi, the founding of Memphis and the construction of the Great Pyramid. These fluctuations in copper levels reflect the evolutionary history of the region. Secondly, the Strontium/Iron (Sr/Fe) ratios provided a record of climate change, divided into three major phases, culminating in major climatic upheavals in East Africa around 2150 BC, potentially leading to the decline of the Old Kingdom.
In short, thanks to geoarchaeological techniques, this study sheds light on the dynamic relationship between ancient Egyptian civilisation and its palaeoenvironments, revealing insights into palaeotopography, climate change and historical events at the port of Khufu.

Key words: Alluvial environment, Geoarchaeology, Geochemistry, Giza, Ancient port, Pyramid, Stratigraphy, Egypt.

------------- English version -----------

This PhD was carried out at CEREGE, in the Earth and Planets Team, under the supervision of Mr. Christophe MORHANGE and Mr. Nick MARRINER. The defense will take place on Tuesday 19 December 2023 at 2 PM, in English, in the CEREGE amphitheater (PASTEUR building).

The defense jury is composed by:

Mr Damase MOURALIS (Rapporteur and Chairman)
University Professor, University of Rouen Normandie
Mr Benoît DEVILLERS (Rapporteur)
University Professor, Université Paul Valéry-Montpellier 3
Mrs Suzanne LEROY (Examiner)
Honorary Professor at the University of Liverpool
Mr Moawad BADAWY (Examiner)
University Professor, Ain Shams University, Egypt
Mr Alain VERON (Guest)
Research Fellow, CEREGE, Aix Marseille University
Mr Christophe MORHANGE (Thesis supervisor)
University Professor, Aix Marseille University
Mr Nick MARRINER (Thesis co-supervisor)
Director of Research, CNRS, ThéMA, University of Franche-Comté.

Abstract:

Geoarchaeology, originating in the 1970s, integrates geomorphological and archaeological techniques to understand human history and its interaction with the environment. One focus is the ancient Pharaonic harbour of Khufu in Egypt, near the pyramids of Giza. This harbour, active during the Old Kingdom, played a significant role in trade and transport, shaping ancient Egyptian society, economy, and culture. The surrounding environment, characterized by alluvial deposits, offers invaluable insights into palaeo-geography, palaeo-climate, and human activities.
The objectives of the study include reconstructing the topography of the ancient Khufu harbour, examining palaeoenvironmental and palaeolandscape changes, investigating human impacts, assessing natural hazards, and understanding navigation and trade patterns. The study employs various methodologies such as field techniques (including the collection of sediment cores and geophysical surveys), laboratory techniques (sedimentological analyses, ostracods analyses, geochemical analyses), radiocarbon dating, statistical analyses, as well as data management and geomatics (using ArcGIS). The study aims to unravel the geomorphology and archaeology of the ancient harbours, to understand human-environment interactions at the time of the pyramid builders and to contribute to the conservation and management of cultural heritage.
From five sediment cores in Giza, we discerned floodplain deposits, aeolian sands, and man-made fillings. This data shed light on the ancient Nile's layout and Khufu's harbour's landscape during the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC). Geophysical surveys revealed subsurface composition, suggesting possible archaeological sites linked to Khufu's harbour. These findings, combined with existing models, allowed reconstruction of the ancient Khufu Nile branch and its harbour. The ancient branch spanned about 450m in width and varied in depth between seven and 29m. While the harbour itself was approximately 440m by 370m with two entrances divided by the river island, Nazlet El-Sisi.
Core " Giza-3 ", located within Khufu harbour, offered details about the harbour's past behavior and regional climatic changes. Sediment analysis and dating depicted the harbour's layout during the Great Pyramid's construction, leading to comparisons with prior research. Notably, sediment data from this core indicated the Late Bronze Age (LBA) drought crisis around 1.2 ka BC, a climatic disruption causing famines, economic downturns, and political upheavals in ancient Egypt.
Geochemical analyses of sediments from Khufu's harbour presented two critical historical facets. Firstly, there were discernible copper pollution spikes, aligning with significant events like the Maadi occupation, Memphis's foundation, and the Great Pyramid's construction. These fluctuations in copper levels reflect the area's evolving history. Secondly, the Strontium/Iron (Sr/Fe) ratios provided a climate change record, divided into three major phases, ending with significant climatic disturbances in East Africa around 2150 BC, potentially leading to the Old Kingdom's decline.
In summary, through geoarchaeological techniques, this study illuminates the dynamic relationship between ancient Egyptian civilization and its palaeoenvironments, uncovering insights into palaeotopography, climate changes, and historical events at the Khufu harbour.

Keywords: Alluvial environment, Ancient harbour, Geoarchaeology, Geochemistry, Giza, Pyramid, Stratigraphy, Egypt.